Author: unet-admin

Customised interfaces and rapid manufacturing (RM) are a recent addition to the options available to a product designer. Previously used for rapid prototyping, the industry has evolved to such a level that rapid manufacturing in polymers and sintered metals are already used to tailor high-end products to a customer’s preference. They can also be used to tailor garments to individuals.  Examples include:

• Switch or control interfaces
• Orthotic supports and grips.

High-end refers to the high cost and high value of the product. RM components can cost-effectively provide customised physical interfaces for more severely physically impaired individuals that link with standardised components within the product assembly. Examples include seating through to a geared drive train or a wheelchair chassis.

Useful links

Diegel, O., Nordin, A. and Motte, D., 2019. A Practical Guide to Design for Additive Manufacturing. Springer Singapore.

Eye tracking can be used in two forms within Assistive Technology.

The first, as a control interface for people living with severe physical impairment. There are a number of manufacturers who provide a ‘plug and play’ option of this type of control interface.

The second is research tool to track the ‘jerking’ movements of the eye, called saccades. Human use this form of movement to build up a mental map of the environment. The fixation points or gaze are linked with visual perception and gestalt or gaze theory.

When used as part of a mixed methods approach, the system can provide quantitative evidence to cross-reference or triangulate with qualitative information (from interviews or participant viewer’s comments during the study).

Eye tracking provides quantified information supporting:

• Intent of the participant viewer;
• Effectiveness of usability;
• Effectiveness of control interfaces; and,
• Effectiveness of product semantics.

Modern eye tracking equipment use infrared light reflected from the cornea of the eye to monitor eye movement. Following calibration, the movement is calculated in relation to a screen or proximal task, within a narrow field of view from the eye. A common form uses screen based infrared emitters and sensors, but they can also be mounted onto a set of glasses to wear. The points given are not exact, as there is not an exact point at which the visual axis meets the retina. They can also be used in conjunction with a head tilt monitor to monitor-head-eye position.

Software can calculate and present data from a study in a number of formats:

• Animated representations of a point and pathway of saccadic movement and fixation points;
• Static representations of saccade paths;
• Heat maps, associated with the static representation of frequency of fixation points; and,
• Blind zones, where the participant viewers did not view the areas.

The main disadvantage is cost of research version of this technology; however, the control interface cost is becoming lower. This is because the traditional AT market is now augmented by gaming eye tracking control interfaces.

Useful links

Cohen, L., L.Mannion, and K.Morrison 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design, Rockport, Gloucester.

Martin, B., Hanington, B., 2012. Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems, develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions, Rockport, Beverly.

Torrens, G., Badni, K., Hurn, K., Storer, I.J., 2015. An introduction to the development of a product Brand: an evidence-based template for use with first year undergraduate industrial designers. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 79(2), pp. 24 -45.Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/18574), Accessed: [5/10/2015]

Wilson, J. R., and E. N. Corlett. 1995. Evaluation of human work: A practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.

A critical decision to be made is whether to buy-in from an original equipment manufacturer or to manufacture the parts in-house. Many mainstream products are made up for specialist made parts from a single or limited number of world suppliers (e.g. automobile wheel bearings).

These parts have many advantages over in-house manufacture. They are made to a high standard, have a ‘data’ sheet supplied that has specifications and standards to which the component has been made, and have specialist advice about their use from the manufacturer. The disadvantage is that in some cases, the standard components available require in-house made components to connect them together, increasing the cost.

Use of original equipment manufacturer (OEM) parts has a number of advantages:

• Complex functions of a new product design may be bought rather than manufactured (e.g. USB connectors, electronic subassemblies, gears boxes, electric motors, switches);
• Safety critical items can be purchased that are to a known manufacturing and performance standard (e.g. switches, sensors, hydraulic cylinders, brakes, bearings); and,
• Prototypes may be constructed cost-effectively that represent the final production version.

An important point to consider when applying this particular heuristic or strategy is that it is employed from the start of a design process. Once a product design specification (PDS) has been produced, the identification of suitable OEM parts should be the first task. Some accommodation of the specification for the OEM part may be needed within the overall design.

Useful links

Burkitt, J., G. Martin, G.H. Kay, G. E. Torrens, C. Chapman, and D. Sandbach, 1996. The development of the port-a-bidet: A portable bidet for people with minimal hand function. Medical Engineering & Physics 18, (6): 515-8.

Burkitt, J. A., G.E.Torrens, G.H. Kay, D. Sandbach and I.A. Sutherland, 1995. The development of the Autosip: A hygienic, self-operated, drinking device for people with minimal sucking ability and/or minimal arm strength. Journal of Rehabilitation Sciences. 8, (4): 115. Torrens, G.E., Marshall, R., Burkitt, J. and Kay, G., 1996. Using modularity to produce more competitive assistive technology products, Proceedings of the 13th Irish Manufacturing Committee , Limerick, Ireland, pp 797-804 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15775) , Accessed:[23/09/2015] 

Value analysis is the comparison of a function or value against cost. Application within an AT-ID process may vary from comparing a particular value in the form of a product, system or service against a defined set of metrics, such as financial cost, a performance attribute or social value. It is used as a production engineering or business management heuristic to help decision-making.

A taxonomy or matrix of values against function may also be used to reduce costs within components or a service. In production engineering value analysis is used to reduce the number of parts whilst maintaining functionality. This purpose is closely aligned with standardisation and modularity (Torrens et al 1998)

The analysis may be used as a heuristic to provide a quick answer to a design decision or as a research method relating to user requirements or through expert review.

This technique is often used in product or service reviews for consumers.

Place a list of values, (components, products, systems or systems), in a row with a column of metrics or function against which the values will be measured. Define a common rating system for the individual function against which it may be used to assess each value. The rows may be discrete from each other or of a common metric, such as cost.

Useful links

Torrens, G.E., Marshall, R., Burkitt, J. and Kay, G., Using modularity to produce more competitive assistive technology products, Proceedings of the 13th Irish Manufacturing Committee , Limerick, Ireland, 1996, pp 797-804 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15775) , Accessed: [23/052015]

Ulrich, Karl T., and Steven D. Eppinger. 1995. Product Design and Development. New York, New York, McGraw-Hill, United States.

A prototype is a product or service sample that made for the purpose of testing or validating a concept or process. A prototype can be used for a number of reasons in Assistive Technology product development:

• The end user or stakeholders can’t fully comprehend 2D sketches or perspective drawings, requiring a 3D model.
• Prototypes can be held, sat on or be placed against or near to a user or stakeholders to provide an interaction beyond visualisation.
• Prototypes can embody physical characteristics that are difficult to present as 2D illustrations, such as weight, centre of gravity, sound, vibration, smell, or movement.
• Prototypes can be used effectively to undertake participatory design or co-design with people who have visual impairment or difficulties with depth perception.
• The fidelity or refinement of a prototype is dependent on its purpose and resources available.
• Human Computer Interaction and Apps design can be prototyped using simple line drawings of computer screens or free graphics packages used alongside basic ‘hypertext mark-up language’ (HTML) webpages to replicate control interactions.

Useful links

Martin, B., Hanington, B., 2012. Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems, develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions, Rockport, Beverly.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design, Rockport, Gloucester.

Torrens, GE and Black, K (2011) Equipment design in inclusive physical activity and disability sport. In Riobas, AC, Stamatakis, E, Black, K (ed) Design for Sport, Gower, pp.153-178, Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/9025), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Batch manufacturing methods have been found to be the most appropriate, due to the relatively small numbers in disability sports markets.  An economic batch quantity can be calculated once the overhead and set up costs (which are fixed) are added to the unit manufacturing costs (which are variable). A break-even point is achieved when the profit per unit made can repay the fixed and variable costs.

Many assistive technology products are made in very small batch quantities, with high cost associated with delivery of the product.  Delivery costs are not shown in example chart. Normally, this may double the retail cost from the manufacturing costs shown. These costs are often unseen by the purchaser. Those involved in raising funds for charitable support groups are not always aware of reasons behind this cost. It is something a designer and manufacturer have to take time to explain to all stakeholders to ensure they know their funds are being appropriately spent.

Useful links

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Paired comparisons, sometimes called pairwise comparisons, is a hierarchical ranking scale assessment method or test instrument which enables design practitioners to gauge the success of their design solutions against other similar products within the target market.  The technique presents each participant with every possible pair of similar components taken from a set of design solutions and then requires them to state a preference for one item in each pair.  This measurement method or instrument was first proposed by Thurstone. [5]

Böckenholt [6] highlights three benefits of using this test method/instrument:

• It imposes minimal constraints on the judge (participant), especially when differences between items are small, and is less prone to the influence of context;
• Internal consistency checks are available that identify judges (participants) who discriminate (choose) poorly; and,
• It provides rich data about the effects of individual differences and perceived similarity relationships among items.

Böckenholt also highlights that there are drawbacks in using this method to test products.  When multiple paired comparisons are undertaken by each judge (participant) the data may contain not only variations between each participant, but also variations at each moment during the test of all the items.

Variation or variability is a common issue within quantitative (non-parametric) testing; unidirectional variability arising from a confounding variable is called bias.  Greer and Mulhern [7] define four generic causes of variability that may be found in the application of the paired comparison method/instrument:

• Sample variation
• Individual variation
• Situation variation
• Measurement variation

The structure of a paired comparison should include:

• Participant information sheet, why the survey is being done, what will happen to the information given, contact details if further questions are asked or complaints made.
• Screening protocol (to ensure correct participants are being surveyed)
• Consent form for the participant, or their advocate, to sign;
• Keep samples out of sight of the participant, unless being compared (to avoid bias);
• ‘round robin’ comparison sheet to ensure each two samples are shown in the correct order, until all samples have been compared with each other;
• Rotate the order of the samples presented to the next participant to avoid bias (Torrens and Smith, 2013);
• Ask each participant: ‘taking first impressions only..’ choose one of the two samples.
• Comments made as the participant chooses can be recorded for cross-referencing of results;

Take advice from a statistician about which non-parametric method to use to process your data (which will be transferred from surveys or inputted directly into an electronic spreadsheet;

Get a statistician to review and help you interpret the results.

The outcomes of a paired comparison can provide a priority order of samples. When combined with qualitative comments about the reasons behind their choice, the approach can provide strong evidence for the effectiveness of a particular new AT product with clinicians and healthcare professionals.

Disadvantages are that a larger sample, (a minimum of fifty participants), are needed and to ensure reliable results, a statistician is required.

Useful links

Böckenholt U. 2002. A Thurstonian analysis of preference change. Journal of Mathematical Psychology; 46, pp300–314

Creswell JW., 2009. Research design. Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. 3rd ed. Sage, London.

Greer B, Mulhern G. 2002. Making sense of data and statistics in psychology. Palgrave, Baskingstoke.

Siegel S, Castellan NJ. 1988. Nonparametric statistics. McGraw-Hill, London, pp 174-183.

Sinclair, M. 1999. Subjective assessment. In: J.R. Wilson & E.N. Corlett (eds). Evaluation of human work, a practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis, pp78-83.

Thurstone, Thurstone LL. 1927. A law of comparative judgment. Psychological Review; 34, pp273–286.

Torrens G, McDonagh-Philp D, Newman A. 2001. Getting a grip, Ergonomics in Design: The quarterly of Human Factors Applications; 9, (2). pp7-13

Torrens, G.E. and Smith, N.C.S., 2013. Evaluation of an assistive technology product design using a paired comparisons method within a mixed methods approach: A case study evaluating preferences for four types of cutlery with 34 upper limb impaired participants. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, 8 (4), pp 340 – 347. Available at: (https://hdl.handle.net/2134/14862), Accessed: [21/01/2021]

An expert review is where those considered being independently qualified about a specific aspect of a product or service can provide advice. An expert in this field may include a consultant surgeon, occupational therapist, physiotherapist, bioengineer, psychologist or ergonomist. They will investigate the specification of a given product design or service. Examples of what points to consider and how to display findings may be seen in consumer survey magazines such as ‘Which’. The magazine, published by the Consumers Association, regularly reviews a range of domestic products.

Taxonomies (look-up tables) of product characteristics can be evaluated quickly with the help of expert opinions. The expert can provide a value or metric against which performance may be measured.

Expert review can be used when a quick answer to a specific question is required in order to progress a new product design development. It may also be used to double-check/validate a new design or specification. The use of experts can speed up a design process and offer an audit trial for the validation of decisions made. This can be helpful if there are safety critical decisions relating to the product or service.

Using qualified experts can be very expensive and should always be considered as only a specific part of an answer within a new product development. (Wilson et al 1995: 423)

Useful links

Cohen, L., L.Mannion, and K.Morrison 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15737), Accessed: [7/11/2015]

Wilson, J. R., and E. N. Corlett. 1995. Evaluation of human work: A practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.

A frame is a psychological device that presents a predetermined perspective or viewpoint to influence decision-making. People will give priority to avoiding a perceived loss above any gain.

Industrial designers can manipulate or bias the perception of a product or service through highlighting visual elements. The use of foreground background differentiation within perception and contrast to highlight the desired elements are just two ways in which this may be done.

This may also be achieved through emphasising the attributes of a product’s function or aligning the cultural coding (branding) with the aspirations of the viewer.

Barnes (2011) has highlighted what appears to be endemic discrimination within UK society towards those considered disabled. From the definition of ID given earlier, it is clear Industrial Designers have the skills and knowledge to help change attitudes and behaviours in relation to AT products, leading to a change in UK society’s perception of impairment and disability. The table highlights the issues raised by Barnes. The Barnes list has been matched with a list of ways in which ID practitioners may overcome these challenges to effect social change.

Systemic and endemic discrimination

• social discrimination (despite the Equality Act, 2010, UK)
• Medical model and treatment reinforces segregation
• Doctrine of human adaptability and fixed environment
• Social model (late 20th Century – early 21st Century)
• Innate social behaviour: weak/ill
• Perception: disability = weakness – leading to social stigma

ID and inclusivity

• Social integration
• Change perceptions
• Manipulate psycho-social perception through colour, form, texture and sound
• Change behaviours
• Manipulate response and behaviours using social doctrines semantics, social value and association
• Education and awareness
• Role models
• Change environment
• User centred focus

_{Example of challenges within AT product design barriers and pathways to solutions
(Torrens 2012)}

Useful links

Barnes, C., 1995. Disability rights: rhetoric and reality in the UK. Disability & Society, 10, (1). pp. 111-116.

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

A persona is a social representation of a character. Characters or personas in marketing and user experience UX design are used to represent a target market group. The characteristics of the individual presented through the persona are a grouping or consensus of social conventions often used by the target group. The individual persona’s lifestyle, requirements and aspirations for products and services are more easily demonstrated and more accessible to a new product development (NPD) team. The subtleties of social fashion and trends can be discussed within the NPD team. The alignment and prioritisation of a product design specification with the target market can be done though predicting the consumer choice the persona character may make in relation to the product or service.

The characteristics often found within a persona are:

• Gender,
• Age,
• Physical characteristics (anthropometry/ scale, weight)
• Health
• Socio-ecconomic status,
• Lifestyle (including employment, leisure), and,
• Market research data is required, which may be obtained through literature review of National statistics surveys, Government census, market reports, and monitoring social media.

Primary source data may be obtained through, interview, observation, focus groups and empathic modelling.

A character may be defined that has a consensus or collection of characteristics that are frequently observed within the target market population.

The character may be represented through:

• A written description,
• A visualisation of the persona character,
• A series of storyboards describing the character and lifestyle,
• Role paly (an actor responding as the persona character), and
• Computer simulation.
• A persona is useful when a team of professionals are undertaking an NPD, as it provides a focus for discussion and debate.

A persona is best used near the beginning of a more detailed review of the target market’s requirements and aspirations for a product.

Persona’s do not replace confirmation of a product design specification with end users. Validation with end users is a critical to ensuring your product is matched appropriately to your market

Useful links

Cohen, L. Mannion, L., Morrison K. 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

Langford, J., McDonagh, D., 2003. Focus groups supporting effective product development. Taylor & Francis, London.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design, Rockport, Gloucester.

Morgan, D.L., 1997, Focus groups as qualitative research, second edition, qualitative research methods series 16, Sage, London

Martin, B., Hanington, B., 2012. Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems, develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions, Rockport, Beverly.

Pruitt, J., Adlin T., 2006. The persona lifecycle: keeping people in mind throughout product design, Elsevier, San Francisco.

Surveys are used to gain and evaluate information from a larger population. They are often used for population surveys, linked with questionnaires. Surveys are often completed anonymously, but may include a request for personal identification. 

Surveys can provide both quantitative (numbers of choices, for example) and qualitative information (opinions, for example) for analysis and evaluation.

A questionnaire is a set of questions being asked of a participant to provide evidence for analysis and evaluation within a survey. Questionnaires are conventionally completed by one person at a time, to avoid forms of bias, but sent to multiple people at the same time. This is to capture as many responses as possible within the duration of a study.

Surveys formats include:

• Face to face survey of set questions (no deviation or discussion)
• Telephone survey (operator or automated)
• Mailshot survey (completed by hand)
• Online survey (completed via computer on the internet)

Types of questions that can be asked include:

• Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options
• Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options
• Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options
• (Bounded)Continuous, where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale

Questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables could for instance include questions on:

• preferences (e.g. political party)
• behaviours (e.g. food consumption)
• facts (e.g. gender)

Questionnaires are aggregated into either a scale or index questions that include, for instance, questions that measure:

• latent traits (e.g. personality traits such as extroversion)
• attitudes (e.g. towards immigration)
• an index (e.g. Social Economic Status)

An example of a survey structure includes:

“Thank you for taking part. Introductory explanation of why the survey is being carried out and what will be done with the information, estimated time to complete; and, contact information if there are more enquiries about the survey or a complaint.

A consent ‘tick box’ (online) or signature, if not completed anonymously

Information about the participant

Questions related to the ‘research question’ to be answered

Cross referenced questions

Completion and ‘Thank you’ page including, further participation.”

Consider enabling the participant to have a copy of the survey they have completed and a contact where they can get access to the completed survey results when published.

When developing your survey consider:

• Use Terminology and langue appropriate to your target population
• Use statements that allow for different terminology in the answer
• Specific, closed followed by an open question.
• Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
• Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
• Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
• Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
• Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you like Apples and Pears?)

Additional data collection methods or techniques that may be used in conjunction with surveys include:

• Product or cultural probes
• Interview
• Likert scales
• Paired comparisons
• Ranking
• Online surveys

Viewed with suspicion (payment to be involved a likely scam)

Paid involvement or incentives may also be a scam and introduces Bias.

Useful links

Bristol online surveys (mainly academic use)

Surveymonkey (limited number of uses)

Google analytics

Cohen, L., L.Mannion, and K.Morrison 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15737), Accessed: [7/11/2015]

Wilson, J. R., and E. N. Corlett. 1995. Evaluation of human work: A practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.

Much of AT product design is currently focused on the physical function of a product. However, there are many commentators who have highlighted the issues in user acceptance of AT products. (Philips 1993, Fuhruer 2003). High quality engineered products that function safely and effectively in relation to a given task or purpose are often discarded when they do not have an appropriate component of social and cultural function. The social and cultural function is often referred to as style or the ‘x’ factor of a product.

This text takes the viewpoint and context of a westernised consumer society and end user. Krippendorff (2006) proposed what he felt was a paradigm shift in the design of artefacts and services from how those products and services functioned to what they meant for those who consumed them.

Whilst Industrial and graphic designers have always worked within a user-focused or centred environment, the value of their work has only been fully recognised or utilised by business or engineering profession in the last five decades. A user-centred approach to the application of interfaces, technology or systems, now termed ‘design thinking’ has gained popularity over the last two decades. It fits with the application of Human Computer Interaction (HCI) principles, user experience, and social values given to a product or service also defined as affordances by Donald Norman (1988).

The cultural coding may be a word, symbol, shape or form, colour or texture. It may also be a sound, action, or change in state, or other physical response to interaction. The smallest component of coding is a grapheme, (language, spoken or written), or visual grapheme, (visual language of images, colours, or forms).

The application of semantics to an AT product design follows the protocol given (see below).

• Identify physical, social and cultural context of the product or service;
• Define the user, task and environment (as above);
• Define physical constraints to the AT product design specification (standards, cost, guidelines, performance, market size);
• Define keywords from user needs and aspirations
• Convert keywords to form, colour, texture that embody the cultural meaning or coding for the target market (within the constraints of the PDS);
• Realise an artefact or service that embodies, the functionality of the PDS and required cultural coding;
• Check balance of PDS function and cultural coding through AT persona footprint and apply cognitive reframing as required;
• Check/develop the balance of function and the coding through participatory design;
• Produce a higher fidelity, detailed model or prototype of the product or service;
• Undertake a wider check/validation using surveys/presentations.

Useful links

Barnes, C., 1995. Disability rights: rhetoric and reality in the UK. Disability & Society, 10, (1). pp. 111-116.

Fuhruer, M.J., Utai, J.W., Scherer, M.J., 2003. A framework for the conceptual modelling of assistive technology device outcomes, Disability and Rehabilitation, (25), 22, Informa PLC, London. pp1243-1251

Krippendorff, K., 2006. The semantics turn: a new foundation for design,CRC Press, Boca Raton.

Norman, D. 1988. Psychology of everyday things, Basic Books, New York.

Philips, B., 1993. Predictors of Assistive Technology Abandonment, Assistive Technology: The official journal of RESNA, (5), 1. Taylor and Francis, New York.

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Torrens, GE, 2011. Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15737), Accessed: [7/11/2015]

Sketch models are a quick and low-cost option for prototyping.

Low cost physical prototypes can be made from paper, cardboard, extruded polystyrene foam board (blue board) or soft wood of a fine grain (such as jelutong or balsa). These can be finished to a high quality with limited resources (craft knife, fine blade fret saw and sand paper). These types of prototype give a good user experience (UX) beyond visual review.

Using weights (lead shot, for example) sandwiched between sections of the outer model can replicate the weight of a real product.

Human Computer Interaction and Apps design can be prototyped using simple line drawings of computer screens. This may be replaced by simple screens produced in low-cost or free graphics packages alongside basic ‘hypertext mark-up language’ (HTML) webpages to replicate control interactions.

Useful links

Martin, B., Hanington, B., 2012. Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems, develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions, Rockport, Beverly.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design, Rockport, Gloucester.

Torrens, GE and Black, K (2011) Equipment design in inclusive physical activity and disability sport. In Riobas, AC, Stamatakis, E, Black, K (ed) Design for Sport, Gower, pp.153-178, Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/9025), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Predictive modelling is applying existing knowledge about a target user, task and environment (UTE); accessed through both generic and specific databases and design guides. 

There are many such modelling databases that often include descriptions of research methods by which the data may be updated.  Paper-based tool and databases include User-fit (Poulson 1995) and Inclusive guidelines (Keates and Clarkson 2003).  Computer based predictive modelling has also been developed to enable more intuitive use.  The Inclusive Design Tool Kit (Engineering Design Centre 2010), an internet data-base and methods guide is an intermediate to the software based analysis tools shown in USER-fit. Generic anthropometric databases, such as PEOPLEsize (Open Ergonomics 2015), support specific guidelines and tools.  Software tools such as SAMMIE (Loughborough University 2010) provide physical ergonomics-based data, mainly for spatial accessibility and usability, the specification for which is imported into the software.  HADRIAN (Porter 2004) is an advance on the anthropometric-based design tools and databases such that it integrates the best of these elements. The software provides an information-rich interface for performance information collected from real people with defined medical conditions. Other Chapters in this book provide more in-depth detail about SAMMIE and HADRIAN.

Whilst these databases provide a very useful starting point to gain empathy with a target user, they are limited in the number of components they capture.  An advantage that systems such as Hadrian have is that they enable a cost-effective way for designers to match a target market with a clear population size and associated characteristics envelope.

Useful links

Keates, S., and P. J. Clarkson. 2003. Countering design exclusion through inclusive design. SIGCAPH NEWSLETTER: 69-76.

Open Ergonomics Ltd. 2015, (online). PeopleSize  2008, Available at: (http://www.openerg.com/psz/index.html). Accessed [23/09/2015].

Porter, J. M., Case , K., Marshall, R., Gyi, D., and Oliver-Sims, R., 2004. Beyond Jack and Jill: Designing for individuals using HADRIAN. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 33, (3), Elsevier, London. pp249-64.

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

A design tool that has been found to be an effective method of refining AT product designs is Persona Footprint Assessment (PFA).  This design heuristic enables a practitioner to quickly assess the area of visible technology compared with that of the person. The objective is to minimise the perceived technology and emphasise the personality of the individual.

This tool is based on David Marr’s computational theory of vision perception (Marr 1982).  Marr indicated that humans build up a visual map of the world from a series of visual scans, from a 2D outline through to a fully-rendered 3D environment. 

The PFA tool focuses on the initial scan made where we identify outlines, important to identifying visual elements that pose a threat, such as objects heading towards us or a Tiger hiding nearby, or that are food shapes (background to foreground differentiation).

Strategies for this include:

• Minimise the volume of the technology (compact electronics, body contoured supports and seating, fold-away items);
• Break the technology into smaller elements (battery pack on a belt, not part of the communication device);
• Use of colour to make technologies recessive (dark colours, matt textures); and,
• Customising the technology to the individual’s personality and value system, branding (symbols and colours of a favourite football team).

When applied to AT products, it has been found in previous years that effective use of technologies has visually swamped the person using it. (Torrens 2012) 

An example of an AT product designed and made is a baby carrier for a mother with cerebral palsy, shown in the example figure. The visual impact of the structure was minimised through the use of a single pole support thin rod holding structure and satin finish black frame. Using Marr’s theory of perception, the viewer should define the outline of the proprietary baby carrier seat and mother before the supporting frame.

Useful links

Marr, D. 1982. Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information MIT Press.

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Camouflage has been used extensively in modern military applications for over one hundred years. However, social camouflage has been used by artists and designers for even longer within clothing, body-worn accessories and more recently automotive and product design. Most practising designers learn this tacit heuristic through trial and error or passed on through master-student experience.

The explanation of underpinning theory links the principle to application.

The main Gestalt principle applied within the social camouflage heuristic is the ‘law of pragnanz’ or ‘law of simplicity’, that states people will perceive and interpret ambiguous or complex images as the simplest form(s) possible. (Lidwell 2010: 144-5) This Gestalt law or principle is associated with other laws such as continuation and closure, already highlighted earlier. In terms of camouflage, the ‘dazzle’ pattern used on early 20^th Century warships is a good example of breaking up the outer profile of a ship when viewed on the horizon.

Camouflage is used in nature by many animals for hunting or survival. A scientific approach has been extensively used in modern military applications for nearly one hundred years. Baumach, (2012: 79-102) provides a good introduction to the military application of camouflage.

Key points from this summary are:

• Distance at which the object is being viewed will affect the choice of camouflage options;
• Blending of colours or patterns into the surround environment;
• Disrupting the outline of an object against the background;
• Baumach cites Burle Industries (1974) and Graham (1966) when defining resolution of lines at a set frequency in different lighting conditions through stereoscopic vision (0.5 minute of arc per line pair);
• Using a Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test, Baumach cites Graham again to highlight that the human eye is least sensitive to hue differences in the blue and red regions of the colour spectrum;
• The eye is least sensitive to chromatic change within the green region of the colour spectrum.

Baumach goes on to further discuss the processing and interpretation of what the eyes see through the brain and mind, citing the work of the psychologist Max Wertheimer. Wertheimer’s principles of Gestalt are a good practical guide to how the mind interprets the world from vision. (Ellis 1997) The principles of Gestalt highlighted as being useful in camouflage are: Proximity, Similarity, Continuity, Closure, and Common fate. (Baumach 2012: 87-78)

The principles applied rely mainly on the understanding of ‘Phase One’ or ‘bottom-up’ visual processing within perception. Ware (2012) and Crilly (2004) have produced models of this mechanism of processing, leading to object recognition and assignment of meaning. Object recognition and assignment of meaning primarily involves ‘Phase One’ or top-down’ processing. Whilst ‘Phase One’ processing takes 200-250msec to complete ‘Phase Two’ is parallel processed alongside ‘Phase One’, taking around 400msec to complete.

An example is the Kura Care cutlery range, which used a white outer to frame a high-contrast black centre. The centre section was made to match a conventional straight, parallel sided cutlery handle where possible. The non-colour preference was chosen based on experience from undertaking other cutlery assessments, where most participants would accept a non-colour for the handle but had different preferences if a colour choice was offered.

Useful links

Baumbach, J., 2012. Colour and camouflage: design issues in military clothing. In Advances in Military Textiles and Personal Equipment (pp. 79-102).

Crilly, N., Moultrie, J., & Clarkson, P. J.,2004. Seeing things: consumer response to the visual domain in product design. Design studies, 25(6), 547-577.

Ellis, D.W., 1997. A source book of Gestalt psychology. (Ed) Ellis. W.D. reprint, The Gestalt Journal Press, Gouldsboro.

Lidwell, W., Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., 2011. Universal principles of design: 125 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design, 2nd Ed, Rockport, Gloucester.

Marr, D., 1982. Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. MIT Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Torrens, G., Storer, I., Asghar, S., Welsh, R., Hurn, K., 2019. Social camouflage: A survey of 143 students of their preference for assistive technology cutlery and the visual mechanisms being influenced. In: Contemporary Ergonomics and Human Factors 2019, (Conference), Eds. Rebecca Charles and David Golightly. CIEHF. Available at: (https://hdl.handle.net/2134/36645), Acccessed: [25/01/2021]

Torrens, G., Storer, I., Asghar, S., Welsh, R., Hurn, K., 2019. Social camouflage: A survey of 143 students of their preference for assistive technology cutlery and the visual mechanisms being influenced. Figshare. Fileset., Figshare. Available at: (https://doi.org/10.17028/rd.lboro.7472675.v1), [Accessed 21 December 2018]

Ware, C., 2012. Information visualization: perception for design. Elsevier.
World Health Organization. (2018). Assistive Technology. Available at: (http://www.who.int/mediacentere/factsheets/assistive-technology/en/), [Accessed October 21, 2018]

A key element of the AT-ID process is the use of standardisation and modularity within the product’s design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA).

Standardising on original equipment manufacturer (OEM) parts for the core physical functional components of an AT product increases the potential viability of an AT product. 

Standard locations and assembly interfaces within the core subassembly offer the greatest opportunity to attach a range of components that customise the product for a niche market. ‘plug and play’ technology within computer peripherals are a good example of this strategy.

Useful links

Burkitt, J., G. Martin, G.H. Kay, G. E. Torrens, C. Chapman, and D. Sandbach, 1996. The development of the port-a-bidet: A portable bidet for people with minimal hand function. Medical Engineering & Physics 18, (6): 515-8.

Burkitt, J. A., G.E.Torrens, G.H. Kay, D. Sandbach and I.A. Sutherland, 1995. The development of the Autosip: A hygienic, self-operated, drinking device for people with minimal sucking ability and/or minimal arm strength. Journal of Rehabilitation Sciences. 8, (4): 115.

Torrens, G.E., Marshall, R., Burkitt, J. and Kay, G., Using modularity to produce more competitive assistive technology products, Proceedings of the 13th Irish Manufacturing Committee , Limerick, Ireland, 1996, pp 797-804 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15775) , Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Adaptability and flexibility (standardisation and modularity) embody the application of the seven principles of universal design.  Good examples include ‘plug and play’ computer technology; and, applications, ‘apps’, for i-Pod touch and other hand-held computer products.

Standardisation and modularity are engineering conventions that enable adaptability and flexibility of functions. Using a standardised physical or electronic interface reduces costs and offers the maximum options within a product. (Burkitt 1995, Torrens 1996) The same principles may be applied to a product service.  There are many good references that describe both modularity and standardisation (Ulrich 2000).

Useful links

Torrens, G.E., Marshall, R., Burkitt, J. and Kay, G., Using modularity to produce more competitive assistive technology products, Proceedings of the 13th Irish Manufacturing Committee , Limerick, Ireland, 1996, pp 797-804 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15775) , Accessed: [23/052015]

Ulrich, K.T., 2012. Product design and development. Tata McGraw-Hill Education, Avvailable at: (https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Product_Design_and_Development.html?id=-eH-ewEACAAJ&redir_esc=y), Accessed: [21/01/2021]

A model of human and object physical interaction (HOPI) has been developed to provide a more detailed understanding of how we control or environment and how to optimise the interface.

There are a number of explanations of aspects of hand and object interaction.  The explanations document different levels of the interaction, from the macro of task analysis by Guo, Genaidy, Christiansen and Huntington (1996) to micro interaction at an biomechnical level by Gielo-Perczak (1994).   Structures of interaction documented by Sperling, Dahlman, Wikstrom, Kilbom, Kadefors (1993) and Drury (1985), Hsia and Drury CG (1986)  provide understanding of hand and object interaction based on mainly observation and biomechanics respectively.

Hand and object interaction is a description of the primarily static connection (grip) between a hand and an object formed for the purpose of the performance of a task.  Due to the complexity of hand and object interaction a description of the interaction is based upon a specific moment during a task performance.  

Static grip is critical to the user’s perception of comfort and ease of use. If an object slips within a user’s hand they will increase their grip until slippage stops. Conversely, a user will reduce their applied grip force until the object reaches a point just before slippage occurs (Edin, Westlin and Johansson, 1995). A product that enables a static grip to be produced that requires a minimum of grip strength to maintain it will be perceived as easy to use.

There are three levels of interaction:

1. Gross interaction, where a grip pattern made by the user to resist the forces acting through the object handle. A grip pattern relies heavily on the ability of the user to be able to move their fingers and thumb into the required positions. Mobility of joints and muscle strength are required to achieve this objective.
2. Intermediate interaction, where the soft tissues of the hand interlock with the coarse surface features of the object.
3. Micro interaction, where the skin surface interacts with the fine surface features of the object. The interaction is primarily a form of adhesion. The adhesive is a combination of the sweat (sebum) and the dead skin layer (epidermis).

Useful links

Brown F.R., Torrens G.E., Wright D.K. , Research into optimising hand and body function for tasks in everyday living: the development of a range of “easy use” saucepan handles, In Bracale M. and Denoth F. (ed), Number 1, Medicon ’92, Proceedings of the VI Mediterranean conference on medical and biological engineering (Associazione Italiana di Medica e Biologica, Napoli) 1992, pp549-553

Buck R, Greatorex G, Development of a human factors task database for human performance evaluation, Contemporary Ergonomics(Annual conference of the Ergonomics Society, University of Leicester), London:Taylor Francis 1996, pp275-280 ISBN 07484 05496

Drury CG, The role of the hand in manual materials handling, Ergonomics, Number 1, London: Taylor Francis, 1985, pp213-227

Blair VA, 1999 in  Functional human movement: measurement and analysis, (Ed)Durward BR, Baer GD, Rowe PJ, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford ISBN 0 7506 2607 0  p160-179

Edin B., Westling G., Johansson R.S., , Independent control of human finger-tip forces at individual digits during precision lifting, Journal of Physiology, Number 450, 1992, pp547-564.

Gielo-Perczak K, Advances in Biomechanics of the Hand and Wrist, Schuind F, An KN, Cooney WP, Garcia-Elias M (Ed), NATO ASI Series A, 256, London: Plenum Press, 1994, pp123-135

Guo L, Genaidy A, Christiansen D, Huntington K, Macro-ergonomic risk assessment in nuclear remediation industry, Applied Ergonomics, Number 4 , London: Elsevier Science, 1996, pp 241-254

Hamilton, Mcdonald, Chenier, Measurement of grip strength: Validity and reliability of the sphygmomanometer and the Jaymar grip dynomometer, Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, Number 5, 1992 pp215-219

Hsia PT, Drury CG, , A simple method of evaluating handle design, Applied Ergonomics, Number 3 , London: Elsevier Science, 1986, pp209-213

Harkonen R, Piirtomaa M, Alaranta H, 1993, Grip strength and hand position of the dynamometer in 204 Finnish adults, Journal of Hand Surgery, Number 1, pp129-132

Jones AR, Unsworth A, Haslock I, Functional measurements in the hands of patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis, International Journal of Rehabilitation Research, Number 4, 1987, pp62-72

Kadefors R, Areskoug A, Dahlman S, Kilbom A, Sperling L, Wikstrom L, Oster J, , An approach to ergonomics evaluation of hand tools, Applied Ergonomics, Number 3, London: Elsevier Science, 1993, pp203-211

Kilbom A, Makarainen M, Sperling L, Kadefors R and Liedberg L,  Tool design, user characteristics and performance: a case study on plate-shears, Applied Ergonomics, London:Elsevier Science, , 1993, pp221-230

MacKenzie C.L. and Iberall T., The grasping hand; Advances in psychology Number 104, Stelmach G.E. and Vroon P.A. (ed.), Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1994, pp222-235.

Napier JR, The prehensile movements of the human hand, Journal of bone and Joint Surgery, Number 38:B, 1956  p902

Shah S, Cooper B, Commentary on a critical evaluation of the Barthel Index, The British Journal of Occupational Therapy, Number 2, 1993, pp70-72

Surburg PR, Suomi R, Poppy WK, Validity and reliability of a hand held dynamometer with two populations, Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy, Number 5, 1992, pp229-234

Torrens GE, A contribution to the understanding of the role of digital pulp in hand grip performance, Robertson SA (Ed), Contemporary Ergonomics, (Annual conference of the Ergonomics Society, University of Leicester), London: Taylor Francis 1996, pp75-80 ISBN 0 7484 0549 6

Torrens GE, The development and evaluation of a saucepan used by people with Rheumatoid Arthritis by the use of an optimised specification, 1997a,  Unpublished

Torrens G E (1997) What is the optimum surface feature? Contemporary Ergonomics, Robertson S A (ed), London: Taylor & Francis pp 314-319.

Torrens G E and Gyi D E (1999) Towards the integrated measurement of hand and object interaction, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Product Safety Research, US Consumer Product Safety Commission, Washington, USA  pp 217-226, ISBN 90-6788-251-

Torrens G.E., Kay G., Design for Physical Disability: A Discussion of Research and Development Methods Through to a Commercial conclusion, Design Interfaces, (Inaugural Conference of the European Academy of Design, University College Salford, University of Salford, Salford, U.K. Proceedings: Number 1, Product Design,Graphic Design),11 April 1995, ISBN 0 9525666 1 3

Williams M. and Lissener H.R., , Williams and Lissener’s biomechanics of human motion, 3rd ed, LeVeau B.F.(ed.), Philadelphia:Saunders, 1991

Wood Jones F., The principles of anatomy as seen in the hand, 2nd ed, London:Bailliere, Tindal and Cox, 1941, pp166-167.Bobjer O (1989) Ergonomic Knives, Advances in Industrial Ergonomics and Safety I, Edited by A Mital, London: Taylor & Francis pp 291-298.

Co-Design, co-creation or participatory design are all approaches to involving the end user in a specification and product design process. Co-design is a form of participatory design activity, originating from a systems engineering approach; in this case, it refers to a one-to-one design activity with the designer. It is also known as co-discovery, (Kemp 1996).

Key elements of co-design are:

• Defining your target market;
• Identifying socio-economic and cultural context;
• Identifying a representative end user of your target market;
• Defining an appropriate language and terminology between user and designer co-designers.

Dialogue is key to building trust and a common understand of user needs (functional) and aspirations (social and cultural function, values and affordances).

Icebreaking exercises before any co-design activity can enable a designer to be introduced to the end user and the user’s context of social, cultural and economic daily living, as well as their language and terminology.

Designers can use the following ways in which to communicate with end users involved in a co-design process:

• Verbal/spoken;
• Visual/sketch/diagram/mood-board/scenario-storyboard;
• Haptic/model/prototype;
• Role play/dance/movement; and,
• Olfactory/taste/smell.

Physical or cognitive impairment through disease, injury or environment (physical or cultural) will reduce the range of options or ‘band-width’ within which to communicate.

Useful links

Albinsson, L., Lind, M., Forgsefren, O., 2007. Co-Design: An Approach to Border Crossing, Network Innovation.

Kemp , J.A.M., and van Geldren, T., 1996. Co-discovery exploring: An informal method for iteratively designing consumer product. Usability evaluation in industry, (eds.) Jordan, P.W., Tomas, B., Weerdmeester B.A., and McClelland. I. L., Taylor & Francis, London.

Sanders, E. B.- N., Stappers, P.J., 2008. Co-creation and the new landscapes of design, CoDesign, International Journal of CoCreation in Design and the Arts. (4), 1 Taylor & Francis: London. pp5-18

TORRENS, G. and BLACK, K., 2011. Equipment design in inclusive physical activity and disability sport. IN: Roibas, A.C., Stamatakis, E. and Black, K. (eds). Design for Sport. Farnham: Gower, pp. 153-178. Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/9025), [Accessed: 22/09/2015]

Torrens, G. and Newton, N., 2013. Getting the most from working with higher education: a review of methods used within a participatory design activity involving KS3 special school pupils and undergraduate and post-graduate industrial design students. Loughborough University. Available at: ( https://hdl.handle.net/2134/14858 ), Accessed: [21/01/2021]

Torrens, G.E., 2017. Dialogue appropriate to assistive technology product design: A taxonomy of communication formats in relation to modes of sensory perception. She Ji: The Journal of Design, Economics, and Innovation, 3(4), pp.262-276.  Available at: (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sheji.2018.01.001), Accessed: [21/01/2021]

Role play can be used to demonstrate or re-enact a sequence of use, task performance or user experience (UX) with an imaginary product with an imaginary service.

Role play is very effective in conjunction with low-fidelity prototype objects or interfaces. Mood boards and scenario boards can be used as background scene-setting before the start of the performance.

Multiple players or actors may be used, but is often used as an additional way of augmenting a presenting of a new product or service.

Role play can be used as part of a participatory design activity or research method, such as a focus group.

Useful links

Albinsson, L., Lind, M., Forgsefren, O., 2007. Co-Design: An Approach to Border Crossing, Network Innovation.

Kemp , J.A.M., and van Geldren, T., 1996. Co-discovery exploring: An informal method for iteratively designing consumer product. Usability evaluation in industry, (eds.) Jordan, P.W., Tomas, B., Weerdmeester B.A., and McClelland. I. L., Taylor & Francis, London.

Sanders, E. B.- N., Stappers, P.J., 2008. Co-creation and the new landscapes of design, CoDesign, International Journal of CoCreation in Design and the Arts. (4), 1 Taylor & Francis: London. pp5-18

TORRENS, G. and BLACK, K., 2011. Equipment design in inclusive physical activity and disability sport. IN: Roibas, A.C., Stamatakis, E. and Black, K. (eds). Design for Sport. Farnham: Gower, pp. 153-178. Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/9025), [Accessed: 22/09/2015]

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

TORRENS, G.E. and NEWTON, H., 2013. Getting the most from working with higher education: a review of methods used within a participatory design activity involving KS3 special school pupils and undergraduate and post-graduate industrial design students. Design and Technology Education: an international journal, 18 (1), pp. 58 – 71. Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/14858), Accessed [8/10/2015]

A story board provides a visual story of the scenario of use of a product or service. It is a design tool to communicate how a product or service may work and how the target user might interact with it. The story board conventionally involves a series of scenes that are in time-linked sequence. The time may be over a short or long period, of varying time periods between scenes, but will be sequential.

They offer the viewer an opportunity to see the process involved in using a product or service. The user, task and environment are often described in the sequence.

A storyboard may be a low fidelity hand-drawn sketch sequence or a high-fidelity computer-generated animation or film presentation.

Story boards have a number of advantages:

• They can be low-cost
• Quick to produce in minutes
• Demonstrate complex systems
• Can evoke some level of empathy through description of UTE
• Highlight important moments that may be performance or safety critical
• Can be presented to an individual or team for review
• Can be used as a presentation tool to target users of a predicted product or service for evaluation
• Can be used as a real-time design tool to review complex systems with a multi-disciplinary team for expert review.

Useful links

Martin, B., Hanington, B., 2012. Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems, develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions, Rockport, Beverly.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design, Rockport, Gloucester.

Torrens, GE and Black, K (2011) Equipment design in inclusive physical activity and disability sport. In Riobas, AC, Stamatakis, E, Black, K (ed) Design for Sport, Gower, pp.153-178, Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/9025), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Ranking is a scaling method for ordinal data. Ordinal data in this context means the opinions of participants given about a product or service (the entity) and on what property those opinions focused upon (the attribute). An attribute may be how well a product performs, its weight or ease of use.

Opinions are qualitative and so stand-alone and have no direct measure against another participant’s opinion. The evidence collected is called nonparametric data.  However, a consensus can be achieved through gaining many opinions. There are associated statistical (nonparametric) methods for checking the reliability of the data collected. It is best to get the advice of a statistician about which statistical analysis method is most appropriate if this level of reliability is required.

Ranking has been used in the form of ‘Hall testing’ of products, to get preferences and opinions on a range of products or services. Ranking can be used on this more basic level in conjunction with a semi-structured interview or questionnaire to gain some insights into the preferences of a target user group or associated stakeholders. The questions provide some insights into the reasoning behind the priority order.

Points to consider:

• No more than nine entities (products or services) should be put together. It is suggested that only the first two or three positive rankings made and the final two or three negative order of preference provided are the reliable. This means if nine products are used, only six will reliably ordered.
• The operator should define the attribute they wish the participant to use to review the entities, e.g. handling, perceived weight, usability, perceived safety.
• All of the entities or products should have a common attribute, e.g. all walking sticks. Checking the attribute is within the entity becomes more difficult if talking about an abstract service or complex system.
• There are many opportunities for bias in the participant’s answer/response to the operator’s question. The diagram shows the process through which a participant will go to answer a question relating to ranking. Providing clear guidance about the questions asked and checking participants understand the terminology/ nomenclature will help avoid bias at any point of the subjective assessment process through to response.

Useful links

Cohen, L. Mannion, L., Morrison K. 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. Routledge, London.

Creswell JW., 2009. Research design. Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. 3rd ed. Sage, London.

Greer B, Mulhern G. 2002. Making sense of data and statistics in psychology. Palgrave, Baskingstoke.

Siegel S, Castellan NJ. 1988. Nonparametric statistics. McGraw-Hill, London, pp 174-183.

Sinclair, M. 1999. Subjective assessment. In: J.R. Wilson & E.N. Corlett (eds). Evaluation of human work, a practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis, pp69-83.

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

A mood board is a collection of images, materials or text that is collectively aligned with a specific project or task.

The material within a mood board evokes a defined response in the viewer. Mood boards contain a collection of social and cultural coding that evokes a response at a visceral, behavioural or reflective level.

Mood boards are used by designers to help identify social and cultural references relating to, target user’s lifestyle, persona, product brand, current and past styles and trends. Each board is focused on one particular aspect of a new product development. This may be the target user’s current lifestyle, aspirational lifestyle, a brand or type of product (clothing, watches, domestic lighting).

Mood boards may be used as an ‘aide memoir’ for reference during design decision-making and as part of an audit trial within a design document.

Process

As a designer, you use your past experience to select materials that you feel are associated with the topic of the mood board.

You select materials, order and prioritise them to present them in a meaningful communication, using presentation board techniques.

A mood board may be a physical or a digital presentation.

Mood boards are an accessible way of presenting market research information, relating to individual and social trends, product analysis and brand analysis.

Useful links

Baker, S., 2004. Colour and emotion in design, (in) Design and Emotion: experience of everyday things, (eds) McDonagh, D., Hekert,P., van Erp, J, Gyi, D., Taylor & Francis, London. p170-174.

Bruseberg, A., McDonagh, D., Wormald, P., 2004. Communicating product experience, (in) Design and Emotion: experience of everyday things, (eds) McDonagh, D., Hekert,P., van Erp, J, Gyi, D., Taylor & Francis, London. p114-118.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design, Rockport, Gloucester. Pruitt, J., Adlin T., 2006. The persona lifecycle: keeping people in mind throughout product design, Elsevier, San Francisco. p379.

Interviews involve an interviewer asking questions of an interviewee. There are three main forms of interview:

1. Structured (formal ordered and unchanging questions used in quantitative surveys);
2. Semi-structured (has a series of set questions, but subsequent questions asked by the interviewer to fully understand and explore the reply given by the interviewee); and,
3. Unstructured (subsequent questions led by the responses of interviewee to the first asked by the interviewer to fully explore a particular line of responses). (Cohen et al 2007)

Interview technique:

• Ensure your head is below the interviewee;
• Place your body at 900 to the participant’s body;
• Non-threatening body language and voice;
• One person only to talk at any time;
• Maintenance of positive eye-contact;
• Direct communication with participants, even when supported by an advocate; and,
• Smile at appropriate points in the conversation.

When interviewing, you may also use:

• Role play
• Mood boards
• Scenario boards
• Sketch models

Useful links

ALLISON, B. and DE MONTFORT UNIVERSITY, 1996. Research skills for students. London: Kogan Page in association with De Montfort University.

Cohen, L. Mannion, L., Morrison K. 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

TORRENS, G.E. and NEWTON, H., 2013. Getting the most from working with higher education: a review of methods used within a participatory design activity involving KS3 special school pupils and undergraduate and post-graduate industrial design students. Design and Technology Education: an international journal, 18 (1), pp. 58 – 71.

User experience or UX has developed from human computer and human system interaction. The origins of the term are with Donald Norman and effective usability, but now apply to many areas of computing technology applications within society.

The interpretation and evaluation of UX is within usability evaluation and design ergonomics. The key elements of user requirement and aspirations for an AT product or service may be found in usability evaluation, market analysis and persona definition.

The language of UX is product semantics and its evaluation is through usability related methods. Matching the expectation to the AT design outcome is a critical part of UX. This topic is also closely aligned with service design and design thinking.

Useful links

Barnes, C., 1995. Disability rights: rhetoric and reality in the UK. Disability & Society, 10, (1). pp. 111-116.

Cohen, L., L.Mannion, and K.Morrison 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

Creswell, J.W. and Plano-Clark, V.L., 2006. Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage, London.

Fuhruer, M.J., Utai, J.W., Scherer, M.J., 2003. A framework for the conceptual modelling of assistive technology device outcomes, Disability and Rehabilitation, (25), 22, Informa PLC, London. pp1243-1251

Krippendorff, K., 2006. The semantics turn: a new foundation for design,CRC Press, Boca Raton.

Norman, D. 1988. Psychology of everyday things, Basic Books, New York.

Philips, B., 1993. Predictors of Assistive Technology Abandonment, Assistive Technology: The official journal of RESNA, (5), 1. Taylor and Francis, New York.

Langford, J., McDonagh, D., 2003. Focus groups supporting effective product development. Taylor & Francis, London.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design, Rockport, Gloucester.

Martin, B., Hanington, B., 2012. Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems, develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions, Rockport, Beverly.

Poulson D, Ashby M and Richardson SJ (eds.) (1996) USERfit. A practical handbook on user centred design for assistive technology. HUSAT Research Institute for the European Commission. Available from: (http://www.education.edean.org/index.php?row=3&filters=f16&cardIndex=21). Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Torrens, GE, 2011. Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15737), Accessed: [7/11/2015]

Task analysis may be considered an analysis tool for system design and evaluation or task requirements and human behaviour. In this context, the description will focus on the latter.

Task refers to a unit of activity within a work environment. A task may be given or imposed upon a participant; it may also be something carried out by the participant under their own initiative. It also requires more than one simple physical or cognitive operation for its completion. It is often negatively associated with an arduous or onerous activity. It is goal driven, with a defined outcome or objective. A task may be defined as describing a single task or a combination of smaller tasks. The larger task may be divided into sub-sections of the overall task, leading to moments in time. These may be then analysed using the HOPI model.

There are three components of a task to be considered:

• Requirement (objective or goal)
• Environment (elements of the work environment)
• Behaviour (observed user actions)

Recording of the task may be done using coding in conjunction with a time or duration. Forms of coding may include sketches/stick figures, mapping, symbols (Therbligs), or even short written phrases.

The recordings may of the same participant doing multiple actions or multiple participants doing the same action.

The outcomes may be processed into a chart for statistical analysis or visually shown in maps or diagrams.

Useful links

Cohen, L. Mannion, L., Morrison K. 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. Routledge, London,

Creswell JW., 2009. Research design. Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. 3rd ed. Sage, London.

Stammers, R.B., Sheppard, A., 1999. Subjective assessment. In: J.R. Wilson & E.N. Corlett (eds). Evaluation of human work, a practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis, pp144-163.

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Papanek indicated how to increase your market; design for one very well and look for others who share the same needs. (Papanek 1974) Increasing your target market may be achieved by finding other User Task Enevironments (UTE’s) that require the same or very similar product design specification, Product Design Specification (PDS).

A powered drinking device, the Autosip, designed for the Motor Neurone Disease Association by the author in 1992 (Burkitt 1995) provides a good example for this principle.

Although initially designed for people living with Motor Neurone Disease (MND), it was found the product was also useful for people with similar physical disabilities, such as Hemiplegia (stroke), Muscular Dystrophy (MS), and Arthritis.

Useful links

Burkitt, J., G. Martin, G.H. Kay, G. E. Torrens, C. Chapman, and D. Sandbach, 1996. The development of the port-a-bidet: A portable bidet for people with minimal hand function. Medical Engineering & Physics 18, (6): 515-8.

Burkitt, J. A., G.E.Torrens, G.H. Kay, D. Sandbach and I.A. Sutherland, 1995. The development of the Autosip: A hygienic, self-operated, drinking device for people with minimal sucking ability and/or minimal arm strength. Journal of Rehabilitation Sciences. 8, (4): 115.

Torrens, G.E., Marshall, R., Burkitt, J. and Kay, G., 1996. Using modularity to produce more competitive assistive technology products, Proceedings of the 13th Irish Manufacturing Committee , Limerick, Ireland, pp 797-804 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15775) , Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Word cloud or tag cloud, is a weighted list in visual design. It is a visual representation of keyword metadata (tags) on a website or to visualise free form text. Tags are singe words, with the importance of each tag being shown using font size or colour.

It is used to quickly identify prominent items, locating them alphabetically to understand their relative importance to one another.

Word or tag clouds became prominent in early 21st Century through Web 2.0 websites and blogs.

There are three types of word or tag cloud applications in social software:

• Frequency of each item;
• Aggregated frequencies of each item; and,
• Categorised cloud, where the item size indicates the number of sub-categories.

Words clouds are good for identifying differences and important items (size, colour highlighting), but western reading conventions and cloud layout can bias the focus of the viewer when scanning the cloud. Clouds are not effective when specific, less important items require identification.

Useful links

Boulos, M.N.K, Wheeler, S. 2007. The emerging Web 2.0 social software: an enabling suite of sociable technologies n health ad healthcare education. Health information and libraries journal, Wiley & Sons, London. Available at: (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2007.00701.x/full) , Accessed:[10/10/2015].

Sinclair, J., Cardew-Hall, M., 2008. The folsonomy tag cloud: when is it useful? Journal of information science, 34 (1), Sage, London. pp15-29 Available at: (http://jis.sagepub.com/content/34/1/15.short), Accessed:[10/10/2015]

Real-world deconstruction is the process of separating the visual components that are perceived by an individual whilst they are focused on part of their environment. The separation involves defining the smallest visual graphemes. Graphemes are normally associated with language and are considered the smallest unit within a given language. In the context of industrial design, a visual grapheme is the smallest visual element that may carry meaning for a defined viewer.

Visual graphemes provide the coding (visual building blocks) from which a designer can construct meaning within their product or service. The coding is delivered via the mechanism of visual perception. Branding is one of the main areas where designers apply cultural coding to images, objects and associated services.

Artists have used this process for many centuries to help codify and interpret the world, leading to abstraction. Abstraction from the real world has been most notably used by Piet Mondiran and Theo van Doesburg as part of their theories of ‘plastic art’ and ‘Neo-plasticism’. Mondrian and van Doesburg were looking to find ‘absolute oppositions’ or ‘signifiers’ through horizontal and vertical planes, leading to van Doesburg’s ‘Elementarism’. However, Jacques Derrida suggests that there are no universal references or ‘signifiers’, but that everything is referenced to everything else.

There are more recent artists who have followed abstraction through to abstract expressionism. These artists include William de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Jackson Pollock. Many of these abstract expressionist artists imply movement through their work.

For the purpose of commercial industrial design, the process of abstraction or visual deconstruction involves identifying the smallest visual grapheme that delivers meaning or coding to the target viewer, within their social and cultural context or environment.

Process

1. Define your market or target viewer who will experience your visual stimulus.
2. Define keyword, series of keywords or a short description of what message or coding is to be delivered to the target viewer via the object or image to be designed.
3. Use your past experience of the keyword; target user and their social context to collect images that appear to have a visual coding embed within it that matches the keyword.
4. Define visual graphemes (lines, shapes, colour, and texture) within the visuals or objects that deliver the required coding for the defined keyword or short description. Many visual graphemes will be identified through the mechanism of foreground-background visual perception. Use highlighting to define visual graphemes within your reference material. This may be through a different colour or heavier line weight on an illustration /photograph; or, sketch of a section of a three-dimensional object.
5. From the defined visual graphemes filter out those that are ambiguous in meaning or already communicate
6. Separate and collect the highlighted visual graphemes onto a single sheet. Tracing film or a more transparent sheet can be helpful when tracing through lines and shapes.
7. Use these lines and shapes in different orientations and scale within the constraints of your defined product or service’s physical requirements. For example, constraining requirements may include: ergonomic optimum size and proportion of a chair, mechanical mechanisms, internal component size, magazine, television screen or advertising board.
8. Combine the different visual graphemes to deliver meaning or a message to the target viewer.
9. Review effectiveness of the communication through: Ranking, paired comparison, interview, observation, eye tracking, questionnaire, applying a mixed-methods approach where financially, resource or time viable. 
10. Further communication of the logic of design decision-making and audit trail may be achieved using presentation boards. These provide a summary of your research and design and link your final solution to source material.

Useful links

Contemporisticon, Online resrouce, Available at: (http://www.contemporisticon.com/neo-plasticism-de-stijl/), Accessed:[10/10/2015]

MoMALearning, Online resrouce, Available at: (http://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/themes/abstract-expressionism/the-processes-and-materials-of-abstract-expressionist-painting), Accessed: [10/10/2015]

Torrens, G., Badni, K., Hurn, K., Storer, I.J., 2015. An introduction to the development of a product Brand: an evidence-based template for use with first year undergraduate industrial designers. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 79(2), pp. 24 -45.Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/18574), Accessed: [21/01/2021]

Wilson, J. R., and E. N. Corlett. 1995. Evaluation of human work: A practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.

The issue of multiple purchasing stakeholders is demonstrated in the example of a disability sports product. (Torrens and Black 2011) Coaches, club secretaries, sport federations, sponsors, family, friends, healthcare and education professionals can all have an influence on the decision to purchase a product. Each will perceive a different emphasis for the product, from the need for portability and handling by carers, who support the athlete, to cost and storage considered by club secretaries. All must be suitably satisfied before the sports product will be purchased.

The use of a survey/interview that includes a Likert scale is required to obtain a nominal number from each stakeholder/participant. The outcomes are useful to identify differences and commonalities within a developing product design specification.

It should be noted that with each new prototype or realised concept that is shown to participants, their understanding of what they want and to what they aspire to have will change.

Useful links

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Torrens, GE and Black, K (2011) Equipment design in inclusive physical activity and disability sport. In Riobas, AC, Stamatakis, E, Black, K (ed) Design for Sport, Gower, pp.153-178, Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/9025), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Brand is a relationship between individuals within a market and a product, group of products and or product service. An important quality of a strong brand is the presence of a clear, well-defined brand identity. The identity is the set of desired associations with the brand that strategists working with the brand wish to establish and maintain. (Aaker 2000).

The job of an Industrial Designer is to use colour, form, texture, temperature and movement to deliver a sensory experience that evokes a desired response. It is critical for a designer to understand the mechanism of human perception, along with the associated response that may result from the physical stimuli generated from a design intervention. The understanding of the mechanisms enables an industrial designer to employ an evidence-based approach to a user-centred process.

The theories behind some of the practical manipulation of an individual’s emotional, behavioural and reflective response (user experience) through colour, form, texture, movement, heat or vibration are documented. A possible reason for this is that much of the data now collected is for commercial use and not published. Hekkert and Shiverstien have discussed a ‘Unified method of aesthetics’ (UMA), (Sheiverstien and Hekkert 2013, Hekkert 2013) within the context of design and emotion; however, the text ‘Universal principles of design’ (Lidwell, Holden and Butler 2003) is an accessible reference that provides a compendium of both mechanisms of perception and how designers can manipulate them. The Lidwell et al reference, linked with a subsequent publication ‘Universal methods of design’ (Martin and Hanington 2012) provides a similar compendium of applied research based methods through which some of the principles may be evaluated. Key activities within the template based on this body of knowledge were to:

1. Identify keyword adjectives that define the current brand
2. Deconstruct aspects of the real world that match the current brand and additional keyword;
3. Define visual graphemes (building blocks) based on a keyword and original brand ‘form
4. DNA’; and,
5. Construct a new artefact that communicated the novel meaning of a given brand.

An expansion of this process is:

• Deriving keywords from the a brand description and Company ‘mission statement’, predominantly adjectives (describing words);
• Brainstorming keywords, adjectives, associated with the brand;
• Reviewing current forms and details from products produced within the current brand;
• Choosing a keyword from those generated that would enhance the brand;
• Taking pictures of forms that, predominantly, visually describe the chosen keyword;
• Choosing ten images from those taken and using a participant cohort (15 people) to rank them in order of which images most described the given keyword;
• Deconstructing the outer form, graphic part lines, points of interest and surface finishes into a series of lines, simple shapes and textures of both current brand and the highest ranked images by the participants in the cohort;
• Reconstructing the identified lines, shapes and textures (graphemes) within the constraints of a pre-defined volume;
• Validating the final design outcome using a peer review rating method against a given set of assessment criteria; and,
• Presenting and edited version of the outcome and process within a series of presentation boards.

Useful links

Aaker D. 2000. A Brand leadership. The Free Press, New York, NY

Hekkert, P. & van Dijk, M., 2011. Vision in design: A guidebook for innovators. BIS,Amsterdam.

Lidwell, W. Holden, K. & Butler, J. 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach thorough design. Rockport, Massachusetts.

Martin, B. & Hanington,B. (2012) Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems, develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions. Beverly, Rockport, Massachusetts.

Sheiverstien, H.N.J & Hekkert, P., 2008. Product experience. Elsevier, Oxford.

Torrens, G., Badni, K., Hurn, K., Storer, I.J., 2015. An introduction to the development of a product Brand: an evidence-based template for use with first year undergraduate industrial designers. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 79(2), pp. 24 -45.Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/18574) , Accessed: [21/01/2021]

A grounded theory approach (Creswell 2009) is a participatory approach to gaining consensus of opinion within a group of experts. In this field, the experts may be consultant surgeons, general practitioners, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, bioengineers, social workers, NGO and charitable budget holders. Each group will have a different perspective on the balance of the product design specification (PDS) and realised product.

A derivative of grounded theory is Delphi method. (Cohen 2007) This method involves remote communication between the research operator and individual experts, via questionnaire and given tasks, to arrive at a consensus achieved in grounded theory. This method enables the closest approximation of a face-to-face discussion with multiple participants without using a Focus group strategy. (Morgan 1997, Langford 2003)

Useful links

Cohen, L. Mannion, L., Morrison K. 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.Langford, J., McDonagh, D., 2003.

Focus groups supporting effective product development. Taylor & Francis, London.
Morgan, D.L., 1997, Focus groups as qualitative research, second edition, qualitative research methods series 16, Sage, London

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Wilson, J. R., and E. N. Corlett. 1995. Evaluation of human work: A practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.

Once a background literature review has been done, unanswered questions may be investigated using product cultural probes (see example figure) and observation, for example, using ethnography, system or task analysis (Cohen et al 2007). More specific questions may be posed to samples of the target market or end users through questionnaires, interview, teleconferencing (Torrens 2011) or focus groups (Morgan 1997).

Product/cultural probes have been used successfully by a number of researchers eliciting information from individuals and groups over a longer time period. (See Figure) Probes often consist of a diary that may be recorded in a number media. Written, drawn, photographic and video recorded evidence provides the NPD team with information-rich evidence into the daily living activities of individuals or social groups. It may also contain activities, tasks or questionnaires to be filled in periodically by the participants.

This form of ethnographic inquiry is less intrusive than a researcher being a ‘fly on the wall’; however, it would require a pilot study to ensure the balance between media recording formats, tasks and questions were appropriate and viable to obtain from the target user group.

Supporting site visits by designers (when participants are not at the location) are essential as they help them construct and better interpret the probes. These visits will also enhance the understanding of the environment in which their product will be used, without needing to gain ethical approval to meet with participants directly.

Useful links

Cohen, L. Mannion, L., Morrison K. 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Brainstorming is useful to help identify issues, which may then be placed within a context using a mind-map technique and a user, task and environment (UTE) as a starting point. An example of mind-mapping is shown. This can be good for a group discussion as talking aloud and writing down (externalising the issues) can trigger

Use paper, flip-chart or digital recording of an individual or group.

Key elements when applying this method include:

• Immediate ideas, (whatever comes into your mind whilst thinking about this problem).
• No qualifying or dismissal of ideas (at this stage)
• Quick realisation of problem and omissions in knowledge

Useful links

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Mind-mapping is the characterisation of a target market and the context within which products or services to be purchased as a map. For the purposes AT product industrial design, the starting point for the brainstorming of a contextual map is the user, task and environment (UTE).

Although the map may not be comprehensive, it externalises the points known and may highlight deficiencies in knowledge about the target market. It also allows the new product development team or other stakeholders to discuss and add to the designer’s original map.

Useful links

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

For those unfamiliar with the AT market, the use of empathic modelling can provide insights into the issues faced by those with specific impairments, such as arthritis, partial sight or blindness. This form of modelling also helps a designer or new product development (NPD) team ask the right questions of target or end users.

Once focused on a target market and the relating socio-economic background identified, it will be possible to define the associated lifestyle and user characteristics of people within the target market. Gaining an affinity with the emotional needs and aspirations of a target user is then possible from the defined age, gender and lifestyle. Methods by which a designer or team may gain empathy with some of the constraints upon activities of daily living are:

• Predictive modelling;
• Empathic modelling (replicating the physical elements of a medical condition);
• Mixed methods research;
• Product/cultural probes; and,
• Product champion.

Wearing Hockey kit; American football or other all-body protectors; two or three layers of heavy jackets and trousers; thick leather or thick PVC coated work/builders gloves; and ear protectors can replicate certain physical characteristics:

• The bulk and weight replicates obesity and limited mobility, arthritis and poor balance;
• Stiff, bulky gloves replicate arthritis or limited dexterity/grip strength/ Multiple Sclerosis;
• A helmet, frosted glasses or those with just a pinhole replicates some eye conditions, glaucoma, limits head movement; and, 
• A helmet or ear protectors restricts hearing and sound location.

Although simulation of impairments can be replicated by improvisation, there are simulations suits available such as the Second-skin system (Cook et al 2012)

Useful links

Cook.S., Gibb., A.G.F., Richardson, J.H., Walmsley, K., Bullock, D. 2012. Loughborough University SKInS: wearable simulations of occupational health – defining specifications and product development. Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/11835), Accessed: [2/09/2015]

Poulson, D., M. Ashby, S.Richardson, and TIDE User Consortium. 1996. Userfit : A practical handbook on user-centred design for assistive technology. Brussels: ECSC-EC-EAEC.

Torrens, G.E., Universal Design: empathy and affinity, Chapter, In. Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, (Ed), Soares, M., (2011), Taylor & Francis: London. Available at: (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330306688_Universal_design_Empathy_and_affinity), Accessed: [23/01/2021]

Engineering Design Centre, 2010. Inclusive Tool Kit, 2010: Cambridge: EDC

Torrens, G. 2000, Understanding the product user: The implementation of a user-centred design approach by student industrial designers when designing for elderly and disabled people, The Design Journal, 3, (1), Bloomsbury: London. pp15-330 Available at: (https://hdl.handle.net/2134/15753), Accessed: [23/01/2021]

The origins of focus group are within market research. The activity involves a small group of people opinions of whom are used to represent a larger population. The sample group are chosen because of they have a common set of characteristics, such as gender, demographics, or medical condition. Typically a focus group may be made up of six to ten people.

A moderator provides predetermined topics for discussion and acts as a facilitator or chair for the meeting. When organising a focus group some points to consider include:

• Participant recruitment
• Personality of each participant
• Participant seating (to avoid confrontational body language)
• Recording the meeting (including flip charts, video or voice recording)
• Prompts for discussion (similar to interview method)

The meeting moderator must keep the discussion focused on the topics and manage the personalities within the group in real-time to deliver the required evidence from the selected topics within the set duration of the meeting.

In the author’s experience, focus groups are both time and resource consuming; and, difficult to manage for the quality and quantity of data obtained.  Additional factors include the vulnerable nature of the users involved and the increased opportunity for bias due the involvement of carers.

Useful links

Cohen, L., L.Mannion, and K.Morrison 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

Langford, J., McDonagh, D., 2003. Focus groups supporting effective product development. Taylor & Francis, London.

Morgan, D.L., 1997, Focus groups as qualitative research, second edition, qualitative research methods series 16, Sage, London

Wilson, J. R., and E. N. Corlett. 1995. Evaluation of human work: A practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.

The International Standards Office (ISO) standard 9241 (ISO 1994), provides a statement that provides some explanation of what is usability: “The extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency, and satisfaction in a specified context of use.” This matches the aspirations of a Universal design approach to AT product and service development.

Although often associated with human Computer Interaction and service design, this term of evaluation is an umbrella term for under which a mixed methods approach may be applied. It is a user-centred approach that matches to design thinking and an evidence-based design process.

Key elements of usability evaluation include the review of:

• Effective intuitive use
• Enhanced performance
• Reduction in error
• End user satisfaction

Key methods to be used under this umbrella term that have been found to be useful in AT product and service design are:

• Needs requirement analysis
• Task analysis
• Focus groups
• Interview
• Questionnaire
• Paired comparison
• Ranking or benchmarking
• Persona

Useful links

Cohen, L., L.Mannion, and K.Morrison 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

Creswell, J.W. and Plano-Clark, V.L., 2006. Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage, London.

Langford, J., McDonagh, D., 2003. Focus groups supporting effective product development. Taylor & Francis, London.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach through design, Rockport, Gloucester.

Martin, B., Hanington, B., 2012. Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems, develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions, Rockport, Beverly.

Poulson D, Ashby M and Richardson SJ (eds.) (1996) USERfit. A practical handbook on user centred design for assistive technology. HUSAT Research Institute for the European Commission. Available from: (http://www.education.edean.org/index.php?row=3&filters=f16&cardIndex=21). Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, GE and Black, K (2011) Equipment design in inclusive physical activity and disability sport. In Riobas, AC, Stamatakis, E, Black, K (ed) Design for Sport, Gower, pp.153-178, Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/9025), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Wilson, J. R., and E. N. Corlett. 1995. Evaluation of human work: A practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.

Ethnography has its roots in social sciences and is the systematic study of people and culture. It is linked to the wider field of anthropology, the study of biological features, such as physiology, genetic makeup and evolution, alongside the evolution of human practices and society.

This qualitative method relies on the interpretation of an ethnographer/observer to provide an understanding of a social group or individuals. The method is aligned with grounded theory, observation, interviews and qualitative research.

Key points to consider when applying this method are:

• Ethics, documented agreement for the in-depth observations of individuals and groups to be recorded and publicised
• Development of a working relationship between observer and participants
• Open ended questions during interviews
• A protocol of least interference by the observer when following individuals and groups
• Avoiding bias in recorded events and subsequent interpretations
• Processing a sample of the data to develop coding for the interpretation of the recorded material (similar to a protocol for grounded theory)
• Second-operator interpretation of the data to check reliability of coding

The group of methods under this approach are time-consuming and are more suited to academic research and timescales than commercial equivalents involved with new product development.

Useful links

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Wengraf T (1990) Documenting Domestic Culture by Ethnographic Interview in Newton C and Putnam T (eds.), Household Choices.  London: Futures Publications.