Category: Phase 5

Brainstorming is useful to help identify issues, which may then be placed within a context using a mind-map technique and a user, task and environment (UTE) as a starting point. An example of mind-mapping is shown. This can be good for a group discussion as talking aloud and writing down (externalising the issues) can trigger

Use paper, flip-chart or digital recording of an individual or group.

Key elements when applying this method include:

• Immediate ideas, (whatever comes into your mind whilst thinking about this problem).
• No qualifying or dismissal of ideas (at this stage)
• Quick realisation of problem and omissions in knowledge

Useful links

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Brand is a relationship between individuals within a market and a product, group of products and or product service. An important quality of a strong brand is the presence of a clear, well-defined brand identity. The identity is the set of desired associations with the brand that strategists working with the brand wish to establish and maintain. (Aaker 2000).

The job of an Industrial Designer is to use colour, form, texture, temperature and movement to deliver a sensory experience that evokes a desired response. It is critical for a designer to understand the mechanism of human perception, along with the associated response that may result from the physical stimuli generated from a design intervention. The understanding of the mechanisms enables an industrial designer to employ an evidence-based approach to a user-centred process.

The theories behind some of the practical manipulation of an individual’s emotional, behavioural and reflective response (user experience) through colour, form, texture, movement, heat or vibration are documented. A possible reason for this is that much of the data now collected is for commercial use and not published. Hekkert and Shiverstien have discussed a ‘Unified method of aesthetics’ (UMA), (Sheiverstien and Hekkert 2013, Hekkert 2013) within the context of design and emotion; however, the text ‘Universal principles of design’ (Lidwell, Holden and Butler 2003) is an accessible reference that provides a compendium of both mechanisms of perception and how designers can manipulate them. The Lidwell et al reference, linked with a subsequent publication ‘Universal methods of design’ (Martin and Hanington 2012) provides a similar compendium of applied research based methods through which some of the principles may be evaluated. Key activities within the template based on this body of knowledge were to:

1. Identify keyword adjectives that define the current brand
2. Deconstruct aspects of the real world that match the current brand and additional keyword;
3. Define visual graphemes (building blocks) based on a keyword and original brand ‘form
4. DNA’; and,
5. Construct a new artefact that communicated the novel meaning of a given brand.

An expansion of this process is:

• Deriving keywords from the a brand description and Company ‘mission statement’, predominantly adjectives (describing words);
• Brainstorming keywords, adjectives, associated with the brand;
• Reviewing current forms and details from products produced within the current brand;
• Choosing a keyword from those generated that would enhance the brand;
• Taking pictures of forms that, predominantly, visually describe the chosen keyword;
• Choosing ten images from those taken and using a participant cohort (15 people) to rank them in order of which images most described the given keyword;
• Deconstructing the outer form, graphic part lines, points of interest and surface finishes into a series of lines, simple shapes and textures of both current brand and the highest ranked images by the participants in the cohort;
• Reconstructing the identified lines, shapes and textures (graphemes) within the constraints of a pre-defined volume;
• Validating the final design outcome using a peer review rating method against a given set of assessment criteria; and,
• Presenting and edited version of the outcome and process within a series of presentation boards.

Useful links

Aaker D. 2000. A Brand leadership. The Free Press, New York, NY

Hekkert, P. & van Dijk, M., 2011. Vision in design: A guidebook for innovators. BIS,Amsterdam.

Lidwell, W. Holden, K. & Butler, J. 2003. Universal principles of design: 100 ways to enhance usability, influence perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and teach thorough design. Rockport, Massachusetts.

Martin, B. & Hanington,B. (2012) Universal methods of design: 100 ways to research complex problems, develop innovative ideas, and design effective solutions. Beverly, Rockport, Massachusetts.

Sheiverstien, H.N.J & Hekkert, P., 2008. Product experience. Elsevier, Oxford.

Torrens, G., Badni, K., Hurn, K., Storer, I.J., 2015. An introduction to the development of a product Brand: an evidence-based template for use with first year undergraduate industrial designers. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 79(2), pp. 24 -45.Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/18574) , Accessed: [21/01/2021]

Once a background literature review has been done, unanswered questions may be investigated using product cultural probes (see example figure) and observation, for example, using ethnography, system or task analysis (Cohen et al 2007). More specific questions may be posed to samples of the target market or end users through questionnaires, interview, teleconferencing (Torrens 2011) or focus groups (Morgan 1997).

Product/cultural probes have been used successfully by a number of researchers eliciting information from individuals and groups over a longer time period. (See Figure) Probes often consist of a diary that may be recorded in a number media. Written, drawn, photographic and video recorded evidence provides the NPD team with information-rich evidence into the daily living activities of individuals or social groups. It may also contain activities, tasks or questionnaires to be filled in periodically by the participants.

This form of ethnographic inquiry is less intrusive than a researcher being a ‘fly on the wall’; however, it would require a pilot study to ensure the balance between media recording formats, tasks and questions were appropriate and viable to obtain from the target user group.

Supporting site visits by designers (when participants are not at the location) are essential as they help them construct and better interpret the probes. These visits will also enhance the understanding of the environment in which their product will be used, without needing to gain ethical approval to meet with participants directly.

Useful links

Cohen, L. Mannion, L., Morrison K. 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Ethnography has its roots in social sciences and is the systematic study of people and culture. It is linked to the wider field of anthropology, the study of biological features, such as physiology, genetic makeup and evolution, alongside the evolution of human practices and society.

This qualitative method relies on the interpretation of an ethnographer/observer to provide an understanding of a social group or individuals. The method is aligned with grounded theory, observation, interviews and qualitative research.

Key points to consider when applying this method are:

• Ethics, documented agreement for the in-depth observations of individuals and groups to be recorded and publicised
• Development of a working relationship between observer and participants
• Open ended questions during interviews
• A protocol of least interference by the observer when following individuals and groups
• Avoiding bias in recorded events and subsequent interpretations
• Processing a sample of the data to develop coding for the interpretation of the recorded material (similar to a protocol for grounded theory)
• Second-operator interpretation of the data to check reliability of coding

The group of methods under this approach are time-consuming and are more suited to academic research and timescales than commercial equivalents involved with new product development.

Useful links

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Wengraf T (1990) Documenting Domestic Culture by Ethnographic Interview in Newton C and Putnam T (eds.), Household Choices.  London: Futures Publications.

For those unfamiliar with the AT market, the use of empathic modelling can provide insights into the issues faced by those with specific impairments, such as arthritis, partial sight or blindness. This form of modelling also helps a designer or new product development (NPD) team ask the right questions of target or end users.

Once focused on a target market and the relating socio-economic background identified, it will be possible to define the associated lifestyle and user characteristics of people within the target market. Gaining an affinity with the emotional needs and aspirations of a target user is then possible from the defined age, gender and lifestyle. Methods by which a designer or team may gain empathy with some of the constraints upon activities of daily living are:

• Predictive modelling;
• Empathic modelling (replicating the physical elements of a medical condition);
• Mixed methods research;
• Product/cultural probes; and,
• Product champion.

Wearing Hockey kit; American football or other all-body protectors; two or three layers of heavy jackets and trousers; thick leather or thick PVC coated work/builders gloves; and ear protectors can replicate certain physical characteristics:

• The bulk and weight replicates obesity and limited mobility, arthritis and poor balance;
• Stiff, bulky gloves replicate arthritis or limited dexterity/grip strength/ Multiple Sclerosis;
• A helmet, frosted glasses or those with just a pinhole replicates some eye conditions, glaucoma, limits head movement; and, 
• A helmet or ear protectors restricts hearing and sound location.

Although simulation of impairments can be replicated by improvisation, there are simulations suits available such as the Second-skin system (Cook et al 2012)

Useful links

Cook.S., Gibb., A.G.F., Richardson, J.H., Walmsley, K., Bullock, D. 2012. Loughborough University SKInS: wearable simulations of occupational health – defining specifications and product development. Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/11835), Accessed: [2/09/2015]

Poulson, D., M. Ashby, S.Richardson, and TIDE User Consortium. 1996. Userfit : A practical handbook on user-centred design for assistive technology. Brussels: ECSC-EC-EAEC.

Torrens, G.E., Universal Design: empathy and affinity, Chapter, In. Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, (Ed), Soares, M., (2011), Taylor & Francis: London. Available at: (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330306688_Universal_design_Empathy_and_affinity), Accessed: [23/01/2021]

Engineering Design Centre, 2010. Inclusive Tool Kit, 2010: Cambridge: EDC

Torrens, G. 2000, Understanding the product user: The implementation of a user-centred design approach by student industrial designers when designing for elderly and disabled people, The Design Journal, 3, (1), Bloomsbury: London. pp15-330 Available at: (https://hdl.handle.net/2134/15753), Accessed: [23/01/2021]

A grounded theory approach (Creswell 2009) is a participatory approach to gaining consensus of opinion within a group of experts. In this field, the experts may be consultant surgeons, general practitioners, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, bioengineers, social workers, NGO and charitable budget holders. Each group will have a different perspective on the balance of the product design specification (PDS) and realised product.

A derivative of grounded theory is Delphi method. (Cohen 2007) This method involves remote communication between the research operator and individual experts, via questionnaire and given tasks, to arrive at a consensus achieved in grounded theory. This method enables the closest approximation of a face-to-face discussion with multiple participants without using a Focus group strategy. (Morgan 1997, Langford 2003)

Useful links

Cohen, L. Mannion, L., Morrison K. 2007. Research methods in education. 6th ed. London, New York: Routledge.Langford, J., McDonagh, D., 2003.

Focus groups supporting effective product development. Taylor & Francis, London.
Morgan, D.L., 1997, Focus groups as qualitative research, second edition, qualitative research methods series 16, Sage, London

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Wilson, J. R., and E. N. Corlett. 1995. Evaluation of human work: A practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.

Papanek indicated how to increase your market; design for one very well and look for others who share the same needs. (Papanek 1974) Increasing your target market may be achieved by finding other User Task Enevironments (UTE’s) that require the same or very similar product design specification, Product Design Specification (PDS).

A powered drinking device, the Autosip, designed for the Motor Neurone Disease Association by the author in 1992 (Burkitt 1995) provides a good example for this principle.

Although initially designed for people living with Motor Neurone Disease (MND), it was found the product was also useful for people with similar physical disabilities, such as Hemiplegia (stroke), Muscular Dystrophy (MS), and Arthritis.

Useful links

Burkitt, J., G. Martin, G.H. Kay, G. E. Torrens, C. Chapman, and D. Sandbach, 1996. The development of the port-a-bidet: A portable bidet for people with minimal hand function. Medical Engineering & Physics 18, (6): 515-8.

Burkitt, J. A., G.E.Torrens, G.H. Kay, D. Sandbach and I.A. Sutherland, 1995. The development of the Autosip: A hygienic, self-operated, drinking device for people with minimal sucking ability and/or minimal arm strength. Journal of Rehabilitation Sciences. 8, (4): 115.

Torrens, G.E., Marshall, R., Burkitt, J. and Kay, G., 1996. Using modularity to produce more competitive assistive technology products, Proceedings of the 13th Irish Manufacturing Committee , Limerick, Ireland, pp 797-804 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15775) , Accessed:[23/09/2015]

Mind-mapping is the characterisation of a target market and the context within which products or services to be purchased as a map. For the purposes AT product industrial design, the starting point for the brainstorming of a contextual map is the user, task and environment (UTE).

Although the map may not be comprehensive, it externalises the points known and may highlight deficiencies in knowledge about the target market. It also allows the new product development team or other stakeholders to discuss and add to the designer’s original map.

Useful links

Torrens, GE (2011) Universal Design: empathy and affinity. In Karwowski, W, Soares, M, M, Stanton, A, N, Eds, (ed) Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Consumer Products, CRC Press, pp.233-248 Available at: (http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/b10950-19), Accessed: [23/09/015]

Real-world deconstruction is the process of separating the visual components that are perceived by an individual whilst they are focused on part of their environment. The separation involves defining the smallest visual graphemes. Graphemes are normally associated with language and are considered the smallest unit within a given language. In the context of industrial design, a visual grapheme is the smallest visual element that may carry meaning for a defined viewer.

Visual graphemes provide the coding (visual building blocks) from which a designer can construct meaning within their product or service. The coding is delivered via the mechanism of visual perception. Branding is one of the main areas where designers apply cultural coding to images, objects and associated services.

Artists have used this process for many centuries to help codify and interpret the world, leading to abstraction. Abstraction from the real world has been most notably used by Piet Mondiran and Theo van Doesburg as part of their theories of ‘plastic art’ and ‘Neo-plasticism’. Mondrian and van Doesburg were looking to find ‘absolute oppositions’ or ‘signifiers’ through horizontal and vertical planes, leading to van Doesburg’s ‘Elementarism’. However, Jacques Derrida suggests that there are no universal references or ‘signifiers’, but that everything is referenced to everything else.

There are more recent artists who have followed abstraction through to abstract expressionism. These artists include William de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Jackson Pollock. Many of these abstract expressionist artists imply movement through their work.

For the purpose of commercial industrial design, the process of abstraction or visual deconstruction involves identifying the smallest visual grapheme that delivers meaning or coding to the target viewer, within their social and cultural context or environment.

Process

1. Define your market or target viewer who will experience your visual stimulus.
2. Define keyword, series of keywords or a short description of what message or coding is to be delivered to the target viewer via the object or image to be designed.
3. Use your past experience of the keyword; target user and their social context to collect images that appear to have a visual coding embed within it that matches the keyword.
4. Define visual graphemes (lines, shapes, colour, and texture) within the visuals or objects that deliver the required coding for the defined keyword or short description. Many visual graphemes will be identified through the mechanism of foreground-background visual perception. Use highlighting to define visual graphemes within your reference material. This may be through a different colour or heavier line weight on an illustration /photograph; or, sketch of a section of a three-dimensional object.
5. From the defined visual graphemes filter out those that are ambiguous in meaning or already communicate
6. Separate and collect the highlighted visual graphemes onto a single sheet. Tracing film or a more transparent sheet can be helpful when tracing through lines and shapes.
7. Use these lines and shapes in different orientations and scale within the constraints of your defined product or service’s physical requirements. For example, constraining requirements may include: ergonomic optimum size and proportion of a chair, mechanical mechanisms, internal component size, magazine, television screen or advertising board.
8. Combine the different visual graphemes to deliver meaning or a message to the target viewer.
9. Review effectiveness of the communication through: Ranking, paired comparison, interview, observation, eye tracking, questionnaire, applying a mixed-methods approach where financially, resource or time viable. 
10. Further communication of the logic of design decision-making and audit trail may be achieved using presentation boards. These provide a summary of your research and design and link your final solution to source material.

Useful links

Contemporisticon, Online resrouce, Available at: (http://www.contemporisticon.com/neo-plasticism-de-stijl/), Accessed:[10/10/2015]

MoMALearning, Online resrouce, Available at: (http://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/themes/abstract-expressionism/the-processes-and-materials-of-abstract-expressionist-painting), Accessed: [10/10/2015]

Torrens, G., Badni, K., Hurn, K., Storer, I.J., 2015. An introduction to the development of a product Brand: an evidence-based template for use with first year undergraduate industrial designers. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 79(2), pp. 24 -45.Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/18574), Accessed: [21/01/2021]

Wilson, J. R., and E. N. Corlett. 1995. Evaluation of human work: A practical ergonomics methodology. 2nd ed. London: Taylor & Francis.

The issue of multiple purchasing stakeholders is demonstrated in the example of a disability sports product. (Torrens and Black 2011) Coaches, club secretaries, sport federations, sponsors, family, friends, healthcare and education professionals can all have an influence on the decision to purchase a product. Each will perceive a different emphasis for the product, from the need for portability and handling by carers, who support the athlete, to cost and storage considered by club secretaries. All must be suitably satisfied before the sports product will be purchased.

The use of a survey/interview that includes a Likert scale is required to obtain a nominal number from each stakeholder/participant. The outcomes are useful to identify differences and commonalities within a developing product design specification.

It should be noted that with each new prototype or realised concept that is shown to participants, their understanding of what they want and to what they aspire to have will change.

Useful links

Torrens, G.E., 2012. Assistive Technology product to Universal design: A way forward, Design For All India, 7 (7), pp.182-205 Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/15736), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Torrens, GE and Black, K (2011) Equipment design in inclusive physical activity and disability sport. In Riobas, AC, Stamatakis, E, Black, K (ed) Design for Sport, Gower, pp.153-178, Available at: (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/handle/2134/9025), Accessed: [23/09/2015]

Word cloud or tag cloud, is a weighted list in visual design. It is a visual representation of keyword metadata (tags) on a website or to visualise free form text. Tags are singe words, with the importance of each tag being shown using font size or colour.

It is used to quickly identify prominent items, locating them alphabetically to understand their relative importance to one another.

Word or tag clouds became prominent in early 21st Century through Web 2.0 websites and blogs.

There are three types of word or tag cloud applications in social software:

• Frequency of each item;
• Aggregated frequencies of each item; and,
• Categorised cloud, where the item size indicates the number of sub-categories.

Words clouds are good for identifying differences and important items (size, colour highlighting), but western reading conventions and cloud layout can bias the focus of the viewer when scanning the cloud. Clouds are not effective when specific, less important items require identification.

Useful links

Boulos, M.N.K, Wheeler, S. 2007. The emerging Web 2.0 social software: an enabling suite of sociable technologies n health ad healthcare education. Health information and libraries journal, Wiley & Sons, London. Available at: (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2007.00701.x/full) , Accessed:[10/10/2015].

Sinclair, J., Cardew-Hall, M., 2008. The folsonomy tag cloud: when is it useful? Journal of information science, 34 (1), Sage, London. pp15-29 Available at: (http://jis.sagepub.com/content/34/1/15.short), Accessed:[10/10/2015]